Ibsen's idea of Realism and its contribution to Modern European Drama.

 

Born in the small town of Norway, called Skien in 1828, Henrik Ibsen is known as one of the most influential pioneers of Realism. He is said to have revolutionized European drama by bringing a radical shift in the thematic form of drama and representation of the folks in society.

He rejected the traditional forms of European drama where the narrative was mostly focused on the moral absolutes, often portraying unrealistic emotions and plot resolutions.                                        “Ibsen found himself placed in the family of a merchant Knud Ibsen and Marchen Attenberg. His relationship with the social context of Norway and Scandinavia cast a determining influence on his dramatic oeuvres.” (Nagpal, 17) As Ibsen was part of a merchant household, he believed in the portrayal of life as it is, with its realistic accuracy and ambiguity.

When Ibsen first started writing, the wave of nationalism in Norway have had spread. Critics point out how Ibsen’s early plays were more focused towards the Viking spirit. Groping the people of Norway during the phase of nationalism as there was a “lack of an exclusive dramatic tradition in Norway in the nineteenth century.” (Nagpal, 32)

But when the Modern Breakthrough Movement emerged, it changed the face of Norwegian drama in such a way which affected all of Europe and helped Ibsen reinvent his style. The impact of Brandes and the import of Democratic and Scientific European Thought lent a hand to Ibsen in introducing illusionistic drama, that presented events on the stage like they were happening for real. His most significant contribution was transforming drama into a vehicle of social criticism. Several of his plays exposed the hypocrisies and the contradictions of the nineteenth century bourgeois class.

Plays like The Newly Married (1865), A Bankruptcy (1875) and The Editor (1875) were set in “contemporary environments and examine(d) modern problems in an essentially critical spirit” (Marker, 157). These plays, and more, challenge(d) audiences to confront uncomfortable truths about their own lives and social structures. In one of his plays, called Ghosts (1881), Ibsen examines and unflinchingly addresses the social taboos of sexually-transmitted disease, incest and disguised euthanasia. The story revolves around Mrs. Helene Alving, and her struggle to protect her son Oswald from the truth about his father, Captain Alving, who was a drunk and a philanderer. She does this while also maintaining social appearances. The play showcases how, sooner or later, the “ghosts” of our past will always catch up to us no matter how hard and fast we try to run from it. It also reveals the tragic consequences of adhering to “ghosts” which are the outdated ideas and moral conventions that constrains human freedom.

When the play was first performed, its controversial content provoked outrage among the masses but established Ibsen’s reputation as a dramatist who was willing to unfold the society’s dark secrets. Another one of his plays, called A Doll’s House (1879), too act as a catalyst in putting profound emphasis on the idea of “keeping up with appearances”, in a hypocritic society. The play, initially, gives the appearance of a typical domestic drama but unfolds itself into a profound critique of marriage and gender roles. The protagonist, Nora Helmer, walks on a journey from a “sophisticated” wife to a liberalized, self-determining individual who realizes her own power and leaves the house with the iconic exit scene, “The sound of a door shutting a door heard from below.” (Ibsen, 68) This conclusion shocked the audiences as the prevailing notion at the time was that a woman’s utmost duty and primary obligation was to her family, regardless of her personal feelings and goals.

Ideas surrounding his plays made Ibsen a “literary icon’ in Norway. “He occupies the same place in Norway that Shakespeare occupies in England and Balzac or Stendhal in France.” (Prakash, 01) Critics like Dr. Arne Kruse, talk about how Ibsen revolutionized a structure of drama called “retrospective technique.” Rather than presenting the unfolding of the action in real-time, his plays often begin after critical events have already occurred as a way to create psychological tension and suspense. In plays like Ghosts, the past is gradually rewarded throughout the drama and slowly the complete picture surfaces in the present.

Over the years, Ibsen’s realism elevated drama from “just entertainment” to a serious art form which is capable of presenting complicated life’s questions. He presented this idea of an individual’s internal struggle which is a result of society’s unflinching constraints and demands, and these struggles reveal the truths about human conditions and societies in general.

 

Works Cited

1.      Kruse, Arne. “The Past in the Present Tense – Henrik Ibsen’s Retrospective Technique.” University of Edinburg, 2018.

2.      Nagpal, Payal, “Introduction”, Ibsen, Henrik, Ghosts, Worldview Critical Edition, 2015.

3.      Marker, Lise-Lone, and Frederick J. Marker. "Ibsen and the Scandinavian Theatre." Ibsen and the Theatre: Essays in Celebration of the 150th Anniversary of Henrik Ibsen’s Birth. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1980. 49-70.

4.      Prakash, Anand, “Ibsen’s GHOSTS: an Indian Response”, Ghosts, Worldview Critical Edition. 2015.

Critically examining Samuel Beckett's "Waiting for Godot" as a part of the Theatre of Absurd

 

Written in the year 1952, Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot, works as a paramount example in delineating the trivialities of life after the two World Wars, a time when the world was at its lowest point. It was first performed in the year 1953 and since has been regarded as one of the most famous works associated with the Theatre of Absurd. A term coined by Martin Esslin (Hungarian dramatist) in 1960, it was a movement which emerged in the mid-twentieth century (b/w 1940 & 1960) and explored the themes of meaninglessness or absurdity via seemingly superfluous human communications and circular plot narratives. For Esslin, the word “absurd” meant something which was ‘out of harmony with reason or propriety; illogical’, rendering man’s existence as irrational, hence, meaningless.

These “absurd” plays were a reaction to the failure of the moral, social, political as well as religious structures following the two World Wars. It suggested that life, after the wars had lost its purpose. Vladimir and Estragon, who are the protagonists in Waiting for Godot, spends the entire play (as the name suggests) waiting for someone named Godot, who never arrives. Their vane conversations and repetitive actions exemplify the absurdity and ridiculousness of human existence. The absence of Godot, who is an allegorical figure for God, symbolizes the uncertainty & the lack of coherent answers in life and the constant waiting marks a vain sense of hope which our two protagonists are clinging on to.

The plays in the Theatre of Absurd, like Beckett’s, were heavily inspired by certain themes or ideas which were the product of a new attitude that swept post-World War II Europe. After the industrial revolution, the European population was filled with aspirations/desires. The leaders of the times promised their people a secure world and were adamant in providing job security, opportunities to progress in lives and give their people a chance to move away from a livelihood they did not wish to be a part of. All these promises were thrown in the darkest pits of hell during the World Wars. Many people lost even the ability to hope because they thought that it was useless and that there was none left in the world. Families were broken. Millions and millions of people lost their lives and the ones who did survive, found themselves abandoned in the path to progress. The disparities between the rich and the poor became enormous. The people who found themselves in the excluded corners of the society, were the ones for whom life lost all its meanings and worth.

Beckett, like many other writers, put forward the realities of these people and the absurdity of life through avant-garde form of playwriting. The play, refrains from following a linear plot-progression, diverging from the traditional form of play-writings. The two acts of the play are strikingly similar, with little progress or development. The two characters repeat the same, monotonous actions, senseless conversations and finally decide to leave (but don’t) when the day is over, leading to no progress whatsoever. This cyclical narrative reflects the absurdist belief that life itself is repetitive and often without direction. The play brings forth no resolution, conclusion or even closure - neither for the characters, nor for the audience.          

Another aspect this absurdist play possesses is the fragmentation of language. The dialogues between Vladimir and Estragon are inadequate/insufficient in conveying meaning and are frequently non-sensical. The play does not provide any insight into the characters’ inner lives, their backstories or any psychological depth. It doesn’t embark a way for the audience to connect with them. This disintegration of language in the Theatre of Absurd, challenges the idea that language is a reliable means of expressing thoughts or understanding reality. In "Waiting for Godot," words fail to connect the characters meaningfully to their circumstances or even to each other, reinforcing the sense of isolation.                                     

The characters of Vladimir and Estragon are symbolic figures which represents all of humanity and its aimless wanderings in search for meaning. They blur their sense of self by forgetting about details of their own lives, reinstilling the idea of one’s purposeless existence or search for identity and existential dilemma.

Beckett employs the use of Black Humour in this work of his. It is a striking feature of the absurdist theatre where the characters’ situation is simultaneously tragic and funny. For example, the characters’ repeated attempts to hang themselves with a belt are treated with a mixture of humor and despair. The combination of comedy and tragedy heightens the absurd nature, leaving the audience unsure whether to laugh or be disturbed. The play reinforces the truth about life being both tragic and funny/happy.

Towards the end in both Act 1 & 2, a boy arrives with a message for Vladimir and Estragon, regarding Godot. He says, "Mister Godot told me to tell you he won't come this evening but surely tomorrow." The boy is then questioned by Vladimir about his work, to which the boy replies by saying that he tends to Godot's goats and his brother tends to his sheep. He also mentions how Godot beats his brother but never him and he doesn't know why.                    

This scene points out the tragic truth encompassing our world. The boy and his brother are very obvious metaphors, symbolising the rich and the poor. Godot being God, is hard on some people (the brother/poor) and the not others (the boy/rich) and nobody knows why. There are people who are born in wealth and stay in wealth all their lives. They are privileged enough to have everything one can desire, yet there are some who suffer and face hardships everyday. If all of us are children of God and are equal in front of Him then why is there so much inequality in the world? No one knows.

 Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot, revolves around and embodies the central themes of existentialism, absurdity, and the breakdown of communication. Through its lack of conventional plot resolution and dark humour, the play illustrates the meaninglessness of human existence, making it one of the most enduring and thought-provoking examples of the absurdist movement.                                                                                                        

According to Delanie Laws (Indiana University), “Absurdist Theatre was heavily influenced by Existential philosophy. It aligned best with the philosophy outlined in Albert Camus’ essay The Myth of Sisyphus (1942).” Camus tries to present a reasonable answer as to why a person should not succumb to the depths of despair when their life seems hopeless and commit suicide. He uses the example of the Greek Mythological figure, Sisyphus, who was condemned to push a boulder up a mountain, only for it to roll back down, for eternity. At the end of the essay, Camus concludes that, “One must imagine Sisyphus happy” (Camus 123).                       

                                                                                                                   

He aims to make one understand that they should find happiness in the daily struggles of life. It’s a reminder that one exists and is alive.

The Importance of Community in Toni Morrison’s Beloved…

 

There is a famous proverb in the Igbo and Yoruba tribes of Africa, “It takes a village to raise a child.” This quote signifies the importance of communal harmony and puts a profound emphasis on the necessity for a community to work together in order to provide for, nurture and create a healthy environment for children which will lead them to become caring and humble adults.

 

Beloved, a masterpiece of a novel by Toni Morrison insights these notions thoroughly. Written in the year 1987 and focusing on the backdrop of the post- civil war America, Beloved is known to be one of Morrison’s best works. Set in the period when slavery was a common economic practice, the novel puts forth the destructive legacy of the harsh and inhuman treatment faced by the Black people who were traded as slaves from the African continent. 

One of the most important themes highlighted in the novel is the need for community in order for people to thrive in life and move forward from a difficult past. The concept of community is given quite a lot of value in the African culture because it is believed that community connects  the past, present, and future, as well as the spiritual and material. It's also believed that all members of a lineage, whether they are dead, born, or unborn, form one community.

 The African culture believes that the community nurtures a person while they are young, and when they mature they give back to the community. Through Beloved, Morrison has showcased this idea of the weight of togetherness which a community holds and how it became necessary for the African- American people to stick with each other in order to heal from their collective past. The process of healing has been showcased through various characters like Sethe, Denver, Paul D, etc., who are all fighting their own inner demons and are traumatised. But they still possess a hope for a better future. 

The consequences of being shunned away by the community are also shown to be dire. Sethe is too proud to associate herself with the rest of the black community in her neighbourhood, resulting in her being almost arrested by the slave catchers. If only she would have been in good terms with her people, they would have had warned her about the slave catchers’ arrival. 

It is only during the climax of the novel, when Denver (Sethe’s daughter) runs out of their house to ask for help from the women of the community pleading them to save Sethe from the ghost of her first daughter, Beloved. To everyone’s joy, the exorcism is successful. 

Morrison has showcased how it became important as well as necessary for a minority group to stick together to save themselves from further annihilation, to have each other’s backs and support one another in times of need. 

A Critical Analysis of “The Strange Affair of Robin. S Ngangnom”

(Robin S. Ngangnom)

The Poem:

Not once can I say

I am the captain

behind this wheel of fire.

I remember misplacing

a bronze bell

somewhere, sometime.

I left behind many untended hearths.

Rushing back I discovered

something had changed me.

I can say

I am this or that,

that I envied the character

of water and stone.

that I envied the character

of water and stone.

As a boy I was made a sheep,

now I am enchanted into a goat

that the townspeople

enjoy driving to the square

with a marigold garland

between my hornş.

At twenty-four

I invited myself to Bohemia.

The kingdom of Art,

where people never grow old,

was my affable neighbour.

Moved by curiosity,

I found myself lingering

at backstages, where painted girls

and poor blind boys

came to do their parts.

In the evenings now,

I often mix my drink with despair.

Love, of course, made me entirely useless.

This is the story of my people.

We sowed suspicion in the fields.

Hatred sprang and razed the crops.

Now they go to gloating (glorying) neighbours,

begging bowls in hand,

fingers pointed at each other.

Their incessant bickering (backbiting)

Muffles (quiets) all pity.

Our intentions are clear.

Slash (Tear) and burn,

let fire erase all traces,

so that suspicion cannot write

our murderous history.

Somewhere inside the labyrinth

we met, locked horns, and

went our feuding ways.

Our past, we believe, is pristine

even as we reaped heads and took slaves.

When we re-write make-believę history

with malicious intent,

memory burns on a short fuse.

As boys return to Christmas,

escorted by hate and fear,

they take a circuitous route

to outwit an enemy

who will revel too much in the birth

of a merciful son. When these boys

reach home, their dreams will come

dressed in red.

II

Hands filled with love,

I touched your healing breasts.

Like the beaten-up past

scars appeared on your body.

I ask, who branded the moonskin of my love?

Who used you like a toy doll?

And my hands returned to me

stigmatised with guilt.

When I turn with a heavy heart

towards my flaming country,

the hills, woman, scream your name.

Soldiers with black sçarves (mufflers)

like mime artists

turn them in seconds into shrouds.

For the trucks carrying

the appliances of death and devastation,

for the eager rescuer in his armoured car,

for the first visitor to the fabled homeland,

the graves of youths who died in turmoil

are the only milestones to the city.

But the hills lie draped (dressed) in mist.

Instead of the musk of your being

I inhale the acrid smoke

of gelignite (explosive) and pyres.

With cargoes of sand and mortar

Mammon came to inspect the city.

He cut down the remaining trees

and carried them away

like cadavers (corpses) for dissection.

Morning papers like watered-down milk

sell the same bland items:

rape, extortion, ambushes (traps), confessions,

embezzlement, vendetta (campaign), sales,

marriages, the usual.

There is talk on the streets,

in dark comers, in homes, words

caught by the ears of a restaurant.

We honour the unvarying certainty,

and pay routine homage to silence.

Everyone has correctly identified

the enemy of the people.

He wears a new face each morning,

and freedom is asking yourself

if you are free, day after sullen (morose) day.

III

Uprightness is not caressing (touching) anything publicly,

Integrity is not drinking,

Worthiness is contributing generously to a new faith

to buy guns for unleashing (set free) ideological horror,

Service is milking the state

and when you can lift no more

to start burgling each other

so that we can become paragons of thievery,

Chastity is forbidding our women

from exposing their legs,

Purity is not whispering

even a solitary word of love

so that it will not be mistaken

for unpardonable obscenity.

Nothing is certain:

oil

lentils

potatoes

food for babies

transport

the outside world.

Even fire water and air

are slowly becoming commodities.

Patriotism is the need of the hour.

Patriotism is preaching secession

and mourning our merger with a nation,

patriotism is honouring martyrs

who died in confusion,

patriotism is declaring we should

preserve native customs and traditions,

our literature and performing arts,

and inflicting them on hapless peoples,

patriotism is admiring

the youth who fondles grenades,

patriotism is proclaiming all men are brothers

and secretly depriving my brother,

patriotism is playing the music of guns

to the child in the womb.

Stones speak, the hills speak

when we finally fall silent.

History, hunch-backed friend,

why do we fear you,

why do we love, hate, lie,

conceal, merely to enact you

in the coarse theatre of time?

IV

Today, I stand alone and acknowledge

the left-handed gift of a man

without a woman, and

a tiny land bound by fire.

Slave to an unexamined life

all that I’ve done

I’ve accomplished blindfolded:

love, fear, anger, and old despair.

The penitent (repentant) year wears sackcloth

and pours ashen leaves on its head,

the sky’s dress is in shreds.

When stars appear, they hold up the sky

like nuts and bolts so that

the firmament will not fall.

But we who sleep under these stars

will not let each other dream.

Love is also a forgotten word.

The ability to suffer, and the ability

to inflict the utmost hurt

on the person you love most,

this is how I’ve known it.

The festival of lights

happened during childhood.

Today, I’m again with widows

who cannot light lamps anymore.

Maybe the land is tired.

of being suckled on blood,

maybe there is no peace

between the farmer and his fields,

maybe all men everywhere

are tired of being men,

maybe we have finally acknowledged death.

My love, how can I explain

that I abominate (hate) laws

When I am gone

I would leave you these:

a life without mirrors, and

the blue ode between pines

between pines and the winter sky.

But where can one run from the homeland,

where can I flee from your love?

They have become pursuing prisons

which hold the man

with criminal words.

Introduction

Written in the year 1959, with a purpose to showcase the environment of Manipur when it first became part of the Indian Union, “The Strange Affair of Robin. S Ngangnom”, is a vivid portrayal of the horrors that Manipur succumbed to during that period.

It is a highly politically charged poem which puts profound focus on the gruesome and atrocious change which filled this pristine land with hunger, death and destruction. Ngangom describes his poetry as “mostly autobiographical, written with the hope of enthusing readers with my communal or carnal life — the life of a politically-discriminated-against, historically-overlooked individual from the nook of a third world country”.

Analysis

The poem starts with the poet excluding himself from the “wheel of fire” which suggests the destruction and violence around him which he cannot control. He does not want to be part of it but is forced to be a witness to such horrors because he has nowhere else to go. The next few lines are the poet reminiscing about his past, his childhood. He talks about how he remembers “misplacing a bronze bell somewhere, sometime” and how “I left behind many untended hearths”, suggesting that he lost his cultural identity and due to the changes, which Manipur passed through, that land lost its traditional values as well.

The scope of the poem shifts from the personal to include the plight and suffering of his land at large, “This is the story of my people”. Gradually the poem traces the entire bloody history of Manipur and the sufferings the people of the land had to go through leading it to the present state of degeneration. Ngangnom mentions how the people of Manipur have become selfish which ultimately became the cause of more hatred in the already doomed land, “Now they go to gloating neighbours, begging bowls in hand,”. The poet goes on to point out that no matter how many times the past is re-written, no matter how many fictitious provocations are added in the “make- believe history”, the truth will always prevail.

He talks about the youths returning home for Christmas but they are met with hate and fear. They take long, indirect routes to outsmart their enemies who would be happy in “the birth of a merciful son.” He refers to how the women always faced the worst consequences in the form of sexual assaults and rapes, “I touched your healing breasts. Like the beaten-up past scars appeared on your body.” He draws attention to the conflict between the Indian Army and insurgents in the land.

Therefore, Ngangom turns to his land with a heavy heart to describe the suffering that the land is bearing. “When I turn with a heavy heart towards my flaming country, the hills, woman, scream your name.” This is also a reference to The Armed Forces Special Powers Act (AFSPA) permits the armed forces the authority to shoot anyone on the basis of mere suspicion which often resulted in mass killing of innocents/peaceful protestors. “But the hills lie draped in mist. Instead of the musk of your being I inhale the acrid smoke of gelignite and pyres.”

There came a period when capitalism started to rise and the violence against humanity became so common that it started to sound “bland”. “He cut down the remaining trees and carried them away like cadavers for dissection. Morning papers like watered-down milk sell the same bland items: rape, extortion, ambushes, confessions, embezzlement, vendetta, sales, marriages, the usual.” The poet points out that the words like patriotism and uprightness have lost their values. He talks about patriotism is mourning the merging of Manipur with India and honoring those souls who died in midst of chaos. To him, patriotism is declaring that their native customs and traditions, literature, and performing arts should be preserved. “Patriotism is proclaiming all men are brothers”, nevertheless, his brothers have been deprived. Patriotism is playing the chattering of guns to the child who is sleeping in the womb. The brutality of the violence has taken such stern courses that people have forgotten basic emotions which define their humanity. “But we who sleep under these stars will not let each other dream. Love is also a forgotten word.”

But even though the land is covered with such destruction and ghastliness, the poet can still not decline his motherland. He is depressed to think about the state of his land and how it has become “tired” now and can no longer tolerate the hideousness of violence. He is in despair while writing this poem, calling the land “My love”because he also knows no matter how far- away he runs he can never deny his love for his birthplace and can never run away from his roots.

Conclusion

“The Strange affair of Robin. S Ngangnom”, points out the awful situation that surrounded Manipur and attempts to presents the outcry of helpless people of the land. The poet has become tired of the events which are taking place in the land.

Therefore, Robin S. Ngangom, through his poem “The Strange Affairs of Robin S.Ngangom” is hopeful about the peace in his land.

A critical analysis of Disney’s “Mulan” (1998)

 

“The flower that blooms in adversity is the most rare and beautiful of all.” 

Mulan (1998), is an animated Disney Princess movie and is arguably known as one of the greatest as well as the most compelling narrative from a Disney product. The story blends elements of folklore, adventure, supernatural and empowerment and the movie is celebrated for its portrayal of Chinese culture. But at its core, “Mulan” is a story of defying gender norms and female empowerment. The titular character is the classic “I’m not like other girls” character, but this movie is one of those rare narratives where one can see this trope from a positive lens.

“Mulan” follows the story of Fa Mulan, a young maiden living in ancient China during the Han dynasty. She is somebody who is not really good at anything, whether it is the stereotypical “manly” things like working out, being physically strong or the stereotypical feminine things like “the right way to make tea, apply makeup and dressing up.” The lack of these latter traits was what gets her described as a failure in the eyes of the local matchmaker and the society. When the Huns, led by the villainous and ruthless Shan Yu, invade China, the Emperor issues a decree conscripting one man from every family to join the army. As there were no sons in the Fa family, it is Mulan’s father, Fa Zhou, who is conscripted to go to war against the Huns.

Unfortunately, he was too old and frail to fight. To save her father from lifelong injuries and possible death, Mulan, cuts her hair with her father’s sword, dons on her father’s armour and disguising herself as a man, she secretly goes in his place. With her unusual side-kicks, that being a little spirit dragon, Mushu as well as a lucky cricket called Cri- Kee, she, under the alias “Ping”, goes under rigorous training along with her fellow soldiers, led by the stern but honorable Captain Li Shang. Mulan faces several challenges as she navigates the male- dominated world of the military. In comparison to her comrades, she struggles to keep up and is often chastised by Shang for her perceived incompetence.

However, despite initial struggles, Mulan, gradually proves herself to be a skilled and courageous warrior who is worthy to fight in the war. In the meanwhile, the Huns continue to advance and the Chinese army prepare for battle. To her dismay, Mulan’s true identity is revealed when she gets injured during a training exercise. Despite her lie and deception, Shang spares her life but expels her from the army. When Mulan was gathering herself from her melancholic situation in the middle of the snowy mountains, where she was left, she learns that Shan Yu along with his army is on its way to the Imperial city and plans to assassinate the emperor. Realizing that she must stop them, Mulan devises a plan to warn the emperor which should eventually result in saving China. With the help of her friends from the army, including the comedic trio of Yao, Ling, and Chien-Po, Mulan infiltrates the city and confronts Shan Yu. 

Her training and presence of mind comes in handy when Mulan, with her intelligence and resourcefulness, outsmarts Shan Yu and ultimately defeats him, saving the emperor and China. When the fight settles down and she is summoned in front of the emperor and the people, Mulan gets recognized for her bravery and sacrifice and is offered a place in the emperor’s court by the emperor himself. In the end, Mulan's actions not only bring honor to her family but makes her China’s greatest heroines in the process. She also challenges the rigid gender roles of her society, proving that a woman can be as capable and heroic as any man. 

Somewhere in the midst of the chaos that unravels in the story, the audience sees Mulan doubting herself and questioning her actions. But she abides by the conclusion that she cannot back off now when so much was at stake and she knew that her real identity and her actions will bring great dishonor to her family and father, which was worse than death for him. This firmness in character, stern decisions and possessing the strength of the soul is what turned Mulan from being a clumsy and meek woman to an honorable warrior and makes “Mulan” a beautiful & a great coming-of-age movie. 

“Mulan" explores themes of gender identity and societal expectations. Set in the time and society when women were looked down upon and sometimes even punished just for speaking out of turn, Mulan defies traditional gender norms, challenging the notion that women are incapable of being warriors. The movie also sticks out in the minds of the audience for several other reasons. 

For once, it provides the audience with a strong female lead, at least stronger than most of the other Disney princesses even though she is not really counted among the Disney “princesses” line-up. The movie resonates with the audience, especially young girls, for its empowering themes and encourages them to not abide by the limitations imposed by the society. When one sees Mulan make the decision to join the army in her father’s place, she does so out of love for him, valuing his life over hers.

While "Mulan" celebrates Mulan's defiance of patriarchal expectations, it also critiques the oppressive nature of gender roles for not just women but for men as well. It was only the men who were expected to fight and die in the war leaving no choice for the ones who didn’t want to. This lack of choice towards both the genders is the reason why Mulan was compelled to do what she did. 

In conclusion, "Mulan" offers a complex portrayal of gender dynamics, empowerment, and cultural representation. It challenges traditional gender norms and celebrates female empowerment, resonating with the audience across the world and inviting rich material for feminist analysis and discussion.

Unveiling Gender Constraints and Identity Explorations – A Study of Gender Dynamics in Aphra Behn’s Rover

Abstract

This paper attempts to study the gender roles and identity of Aphra Behn’s play, “The Rover”. The paper begins by providing a historical background of the Restoration period, highlighting the shift from Puritanical rule to a more pleasure-seeking culture, under King Charles II and also the rise of the middle classes providing new opportunities for people like Aphra Behn to pursue their goals. Then this paper delves into the portrayal of gender and sexuality in the play. The study also explores the expression of feminine rage in characters like Angellica, Florinda and Hellena. The paper also highlights how the play addresses the objectification and exploitation of women in quite detail. Finally. The paper concludes by emphasizing the significance of "The Rover" as a work of Restoration drama that challenges social norms and offers insights into the complexities of human desires, societal expectations, and struggles for personal freedom and agency. 

Introduction

 Aphra Behn was an influential English writer of the 17th century, known for her plays, poetry, and fiction. Her play “The Rover” was first performed in 1677, during a period in English history known as the Restoration. In this period, there were significant changes in socio-economic and political composition of England. The era witnessed Restoration of the Monarchy, Exclusion Crisis1 and the Glorious Revolution2 . To understand the socioeconomic and political background of the play, it is important to consider the context of the time. 

Restoration period 

This period began in 1660 when King Charles II was restored to the throne after the English Civil War, the subsequent era under Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum3 . This marked a significant shift in political and social dynamics, as England moved away from Puritanical rule and embraced a more ‘pleasure- seeking’ culture. The Restoration brought about a sense of optimism and a desire for contentment and entertainment, which influenced Behn's works. 

Political and Social Climate 

With the re-establishment of the monarchy and the return of royal absolutism, Charles II sought to consolidate his power and establish stability after the upheavals of the Civil War. The period was marked by copious political corruption and a growing divide between the monarchy and the parliament. The seventeenth century also witnessed the rise of the middle classes, with merchants and tradesmen becoming increasingly influential. There was an emerging capitalist economy, trade and commerce. The expansion of overseas colonies and trade routes led to the accumulation of wealth among merchants and traders, creating a new class of wealthy individuals outside of the traditional aristocracy. This social shift created new opportunities for individuals like Aphra Behn, who came from a modest background, to engage in literature and pursue artistic goals. 

Gender and Sexuality 

Behn’s play challenges traditional gender norms and explores themes of sexual liberation. The portrayal of the female characters in “The Rover” reflects the changing roles and expectations for women during this period. This period is marked as the time when women actresses started performing on stage and increasingly asserting their independence by challenging societal norms. Laura J. Rosenthal in her essay on Behn’s Rover states, “Whatever intimates knew at the time twentieth-century scholars disagree about the sexual activity of Restoration women actors. For Allardyce Nicoll, women actors differed little from anyone else in the court of Charles II: "All sort of moralities, all sense of decency had gone. Women had become as libidinous as the men.” (Rosenthal 1993, 03) In the play, women are expected to be chaste, obedient and submissive to men. The play features both passive and assertive female characters, reflecting the diversity of women’s experiences during that era. Nancy Copeland states, “Like other "gay" heroines, Hellena acknowledges and acts on her desire, and risqué, potentially libertine sentiments form an important part of her discourse.” (Copeland 1992, 21) 

Liberation of Hellena and Florinda 

One of the central female characters in they play is Florinda, who challenges societal norms and expectations by defying her brother, Don Pedro’s, authority and pursuing a relationship with Belvile, the man she loves. Florida’s rebellion against her brother’s control and her insistence on choosing her own partner is a demonstration of her agency and her desire for independence. She is a complex and spirited young woman who displays resilience, wit and passion throughout the play. She is an independent- minded woman who likes to follow her own desires and does not pay much regard to societal expectations. 

For instance, her disguises herself as a gypsy, Callis, to pursue Belvile against her brother’s wishes. “Florinda seeks to define her independence in the very patriarchal terms that invalidate it: "I shall let him see, I understand better what's to my beauty, birth and fortune, and more to my soul, than to obey those unjust commands.” (Pacheco 1998, 324). 

Similarly, her sister, Hellena is not much different. Hellena also refuses to conform to the restrictions imposed on women in her time. She too embraces her freedom and openly expresses her desires. Like Florinda, she disguises herself as a gypsy as well to freely roam the streets of Naples, indulging in the excitement and adventure that her status as a noblewoman would otherwise deny her. She does not lack wit and intelligence either. In Act 2, Scene 1, Hellena engages in a playful verbal exchange with Willmore, displaying her intelligence and wit. “The women in The Rover use the carnival in Venice as an opportunity to win their heart's desire.” (Gardner, 2009)

Hellena is driven by her desires and is unafraid to pursue her romantic interests. She falls in love with Willmore, a charming but unreliable rover, and starts on a passionate and tumultuous relationship with him. Despite societal disapproval, she refuses to deny her feelings. 

Behn in her play showcases that both of these female characters are romantic and idealistic. “The male subject position, Hellena seeks to compete with Willmore on equal terms, rejecting the sexual double standard that in this dramatic world is clearly enforced through rape.” (Pacheco 1998, 342). Florinda is deeply in love with Belvile and remains loyal to him throughout the play. She believes in the power of true love and longs for a passionate and genuine relationship. Her romantic nature is evident in her poetic and heartfelt declarations of love, such as when she says, "Love in my heart is all my happiness." Hellena, on the other hand, boldly confronts societal expectations and fights for her own agency. In Act 5, Scene 2, Hellena stands up to her brother, Don Pedro, and refuses to comply with his attempts to control her romantic choices.

Feminine Rage

 Its changing expression between Angellica, Florinda and Hellena. 

Rage, in the Rover, is depicted through various characters and their actions. While the play doesn't explicitly focus on feminine rage4 , there are instances where female characters express their anger and frustration. Hellena and Florinda both openly show her anger and rage towards societal expectations on women and constraints placed on them. Their defiance and determination can be seen as a form of feminine rage, as they challenge the patriarchal norms of their time. Florinda's rage specifically manifests through her resistance to her father's plan to force her into a marriage with the unscrupulous Willmore, and her determination to be with the man she loves. Likewise, Hellena also resents being forced into a marriage against her will and seeks freedom to pursue her desires. 

But more than any of them, it is the character of Angellica Bianca whose portrayal of rage is the most prominent. Angellica, a courtesan, exhibits a certain level of anger and resentment towards the men who exploit her for their own pleasure. This happened because she was having an affair with the charmingly irresponsible Willmore and fell in love with him. Much to her dismay, Willmore falls in love with Hellena. Due to this she is extremely enraged and seeks revenge on Willmore. This is a very notable instance because unlike typical drama where a woman is showcased to be against the other woman in an affair and usually the man’s the one who initiates the affair, Angellica’s anger only being towards Willmore and not Hellena is quite ahead of its time, much like the entire play. Her character showcases the consequences of a society that objectifies women and the rage that can arise from such exploitation.

 Both Florinda and Angellica are prominent female characters in the play, but they both display and express their anger in different ways based on the circumstances and experience.

 Florinda's rage is often portrayed as a more internal and personal struggle. She rebels against her father's plans, disguises herself, and takes actions to assert her agency and pursue her desires. Florinda's rage is characterized by her defiance and determination to resist societal expectations. However, Angellica's rage is portrayed as more outward and confrontational. She openly challenges the men who exploit her, demanding respect and fair treatment. For example, Angellica challenges Willmore's double standards and highlights the power dynamics at play. She expresses her anger through her words and actions, confronting the double standards and hypocrisy of the male characters.

 Florinda's rage is driven by her desire for love, freedom, and the right to choose her own path. Angellica's rage is more focused on seeking recognition and reclaiming her agency within her profession. “The English gallants' shifting assessments of Angellica-the "adored beauty of all the youth in Naples" who is also a "commodity," "the inn where a man may lodge" -make plain that this woman who aspires to be the subject of desire simultaneously reduces herself to the level of an object.” (Pacheco 1998, 336)

Florinda and the Abused woman

Two female characters who experience abuse and mistreatment Florinda and the abused woman (also known as the "disguised nun" or "Lucetta"). Florinda experiences a traumatic and disturbing near-rape incident. The scene involves Blunt, a lively and lustful character, who mistakes Florinda for a prostitute due to her disguise as a gypsy and attempts to force himself upon her. Blunt aggressively pursues her and attempts to sexually assault her. Florinda resists his advances and fiercely fights back against his unwelcome advances. This near-rape scene is a distressing portrayal of the vulnerability and danger women faced in the context of the play's setting. It exposes the predatory behaviour of certain male characters and highlights the threats and violence women encountered when their identities were misunderstood or disregarded.

The abused woman, Lucetta, is a minor character in the play who dresses as a nun to hide from her abusive lover, Blunt. She is portrayed as a victim of physical and emotional abuse. She is shown to face frequent internal struggles and fear, but does not involve herself in active resistance. She disguises herself as a nun to escape the cycle of abuse which she’s seemed to be trapped in. While she doesn't directly confront her abuser, her situation sheds light on the plight of women who suffer silently under the power dynamics imposed by society. 

The contrasting portrayals of Florinda and Lucetta highlights the different responses to abuse and mistreatment exhibited on women. Florinda's rage pushes her towards action and defiance, while the abused woman's rage is more hidden and focused on self-protection. Both characters, however, provide perception into the challenges faced by women in a society that reduces their agency and subjects them to abuse.

Conclusion 

Aphra Behn's play "The Rover" offers a rich exploration of themes such as love, desire, gender dynamics, societal expectations, and the struggle for personal agency. Through a diverse cast of characters and their complex relationships, Behn challenges traditional norms and offers a detailed viewpoint of the complexities of human emotions and interactions.

It highlights the constraints put on women and the limited freedom they possess in society. How they do not have much say in any decisions even if those decisions can effectively change the discourse of their life (like getting married). The play showcases the heavy objectivity of women regardless of what they are wearing. Female characters like Hellena, Florinda, and Angellica assert their desires and challenge patriarchal expectations, showcasing the strength and resilience of women during hardships.

Furthermore, the play delves into the nature of love and desire, revealing the complexities in human relationships. It examines the tension between passion and societal norms. The play presents characters who defy presenting characters who defy convention in pursuit of their own happiness. 

It is worth noting that the play addresses serious themes related to consent, gender dynamics, and power imbalances. While the near-rape scene is disturbing, it serves as an important critical aspect on the treatment of women and the need for social change.

Overall, "The Rover" stands as an important work of Restoration drama, challenging social norms, and offering a glimpse into the complexities of human desires, societal expectations, and the struggles for personal freedom and agency. Behn's play continues to captivate audiences and scholars alike, sparking discussions on gender, power, and the enduring relevance of its themes in contemporary society.

Bibliography 

Copeland, Nancy. “Once a whore and ever”? Whore and virgin in the Rover and its Antecedents.” Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700, Spring 1992, Vol 16, No. 1 (Spring 1992). https://www.jstor.org/stable/43292571

Encyclopedia.com, The Rover. Elin Diamond, “Gestus and Signature in Aphra Behn’s The Rover,” in ELH, Vol. 56, No. 3, 1989, pp. 519–41. https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/rover

Gardner, Lyn. Review on The Rover | Theatre, The Guardian (Summer 2009). https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2009/jul/09/the-rover-review

Piccirillo, C. the Use of Rape Narratives in the Plays of Aphra Behn (2017), City University of New York. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1200&context=hc_sas_etds

Rosenthal, Laura. J. “Counterfeit Scrubbado”: Women Actors in the Restoration.” The Eighteenth Century, SPRING 1993, VOL 34, No. 1 (SPRING 1993), pp 3-22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41467546

See Diamond, 529-32; and Julie Nash, "'The Sight on't would Beget a Warm Desire': Visual Pleasure in Aphra Behn's The Rover," Restoration 18 (1994), 78-79, 81- 82

Stodard, NE. Aphra Behn on the Contemporary Stage (2017), University of South Florida. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8643&context=etd 

Broken Chains and Shattered Dreams: Unveiling the Flaws of the American Dream through a Critical Analysis of “Beloved” and “The Awakening”.

Abstract 

This paper offers a deep dive into the complexities of the American Dream through the lens of Toni Morrison's "Beloved" and Kate Chopin's "The Awakening." It critiques the homogenized notion of success perpetuated by the American Dream, particularly concerning its exclusion of women and marginalized groups. 

Through an analysis of the characters in the mentioned texts, this paper travels through themes like trauma, societal expectations, and the quest for personal fulfillment. It also explores the limitations and contradictions revolving around this concept and how there is a much- needed requirement for inclusive understanding and the remembrance of the past. 

Introduction 

Introduced more than a century ago, the American dream often gets associated with upward social mobility, opportunities and self- made individuals. The earliest use of the phrase can be seen in the 1880s, but it was not until a public speech given by the renowned American politician Woodrow Wilson in, the year 1915, that this phrase first became part of the national discussion. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the American dream as “the ideal that every citizen of the United States should have an equal opportunity to achieve success and prosperity through hard work, determination, and initiative.” 

Even though things are vastly different in today’s era, the American dream, when first introduced, started to have subtle racist connotations rather quickly and no later they lost all forms of subtlety whatsoever. This paper would be making an in- depth exploration of this complexly flawed concept of the American dream with the help of two of the most critically acclaimed texts of their times, Toni Morrison’s “Beloved” and Kate Chopin’s “The Awakening”. We will also behold how this concept was perceived differently for different people who were not necessarily White, Christian males. 

The American Nightmare 

“America has been described as a land of opportunity. The shared support of this idea has been a defining part of the American ethos. The American Dream describes a vision where all in the United States, regardless of class or position, can achieve success and enjoy a quality of life better than their parents if they are willing to work hard.” (Wolak, Peterson; 968, 2020) But as opposed to this popular belief, the American dream presents an extremely homogenized notion of successful experience of living in America which falsifies the diverse ordeal that people from various ethnicities have to undergo when they decide to, or are forced to, make the American soil their home. 

The American dream is a generalization of the experiences of a capitalist, Caucasian, male that is being used to fabricate the spiel that in America, one can achieve any amount of success irrespective of their caste, creed, race or religion. However, the falsity of this narrative is exposed when we observe the simple fact that despite 247 years of democracy, the country has not seen a single female president. In fact, the women did not get the right to vote as late as 1920s. That’s not all, even today they are fighting for the right to have ownership over their own bodies which the Draconian Laws of the land are denying them; for e.g.: the right to abortion. 

Exploring the American Dream through a different Lens 

Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”

Written in the year 1987 and focusing on the backdrop of the post- civil war America, Beloved is known to be one of Morrison’s best works throughout her literary career. Set in the period when slavery was as common as keeping pets and also equivalent to it, the novel puts forth the destructive legacy of the harsh and inhuman treatment faced by the Black people who were traded as slaves in south America. It was this intensely shocking and moving narrative which made Morrison the winner of the 1988 Pulitzer Prize for fiction. 

The story’s protagonist, Sethe, is the embodiment of the struggle against facing one’s harrowing, repressed memories and growing out of them into a better future. “Morrison relocated the arena of racial battle from the streets to the African-American psyche where memories of the atrocities of the past have been buried.” (Bowers, 59)  Through Sethe and other characters of the novel, Morrison addresses all those African-Americans who had to pave their ways through the unimaginably gruesome and inhuman experiences of slavery; hence the dedication to “Sixty million and more.”

 Sethe and the American Dream

 The American dream is sold as a thriving prospect to people who want to financially grow in society. But for Sethe, this materialistic gain means nothing. To her, thriving means to move on into the future without the burdens of the past. She wants to make a better world for her remaining life and especially for her teenage daughter, Denver. She wants to reclaim agency over her own life and be mentally free from the shackles of slavery. But  Morrison showcases the reality of this so- called concept of the  American Dream by uncovering the limitations and contradictions revolving it. Even after escaping to Ohio, which was a free a state, Sethe is still haunted by her past and trauma of the act of infanticide she committed to ‘save’ her infant daughter before she fell into the clutches of the slave catchers that’s why Stephanie Li (2010, 73) asserts that Morrison has used Beloved in order to depict “the complexities of maternal love” along with “the dehumanizing effects of slavery”. 

Time passes when one day Sethe has to face this trauma in the form of Beloved who, as critics say, “is the reincarnation of Sethe's lost daughter.” (Lowe, 2024) Sethe’s struggle is a constant reminder of the shortcomings of the offerings of the American Dream. Through Sethe, this powerful message acts as a torch of reality for the people who were blinded by the American dream and serves as a reminder that people who were born as White and were also Christians can only hope to thrive in this American dream and the rest are left to suffer in this American Nightmare. 

Denver, the torch bearer

Sethe’s teenage daughter Denver is the ‘moral agency’ in this novel. As critic Susan Bowers states that Morrison does not think of Christ as the redeeming quality but the humans, making Denver the prime example. In the novel, Denver is part of the generation which was born free, at least physically, but mentally, she is also bound by the racial memories of her people. Morrison has shown an active resistance on Denver’s part to connect with anything that belongs to the time before she was born. She was also not much interested in her mother’s past stories before her birth.

 But as one reads on and the story is in the midst of its climax, it is Denver who sees the need to help, to save her mother from the life- sucking clutches of her supposed daughter Beloved. It is Denver who leaves the house and the yard, both literally and figuratively, to seek help from the community which leads the women of the neighborhood to perform the exorcism on Beloved and rescue Sethe. This action of Denver reintegrated both her and Sethe with the community which gives the story’s protagonists a much- needed hope to have a life in the future. “Pamela Barnett, for instance, argues that the characters in the novel are forced by Beloved (the ghost of Sethe's child) to confront traumatic memories. This confrontation in turn begins the process of healing” (Heffernan, ’98) 

Through Denver, Morrison has passed a message regarding the requirement of the oral tradition which will become necessary for the passing on of this story. Morrison has portrayed the fact that humanity cannot afford to have actions like slavery or the holocaust etc., again and the only way one can assure their never- returning is through the passing on this story (so the horrendous actions committed shall not be passed on). Morrison has put profound emphasis for the need of awareness of one’s history and not looking at their history as just mere collection of facts rather a shared past.

 Paul D’s tormented, tobacco tin heart

One of the prominent characters in the novel is Paul D who himself was a former slave. Paul D is the best example of how slavery can extinguish a person’s dignity, their self- worth, and their hope. Paul D is also an example of the fact that slavery, as an institution and as a practice, was equally corrosive for men as well as women. Just because Paul D is a man, does not mean he has somehow escaped the dire consequences in the world of slavery. The American dream put forth the façade of offering equal opportunities to the people who settle on its soil, but truth of the matter was it only opens its opportunistic gates for the people who were from the English- European background and travelled there via their own freedom. But for the slaves, it was a whole different encounter. For them this was a vast and open prison where they were subjugated to physical and mental torture just for the easement of someone far, far away. 

 The character of Paul D is an amalgamation of the people whose humanity were shrunken to such minute pieces that they started to count their worth in nothing but in terms of money. “He [Paul D] had many memories after Sweet Home that were way worse to an entire degree. Yes, slavery is horrible but Paul D’s torture didn’t come close to what happened to other people; he was a prisoner of the chain gang. That was torture alone.” (Unknown) Paul D struggles to remain at one place due to his trauma and memories he carries from his past as a slave. Due to his experiences of immense suffering and loss, Paul D has been left with deep emotional scars that continue to haunt him, making it difficult for him to settle down and find peace. So, to deal with this trauma, Paul D started to shun away and repress his memories in his heart which he made it equivalent to a tobacco tin to store all those horrors. “It was some time before he could put Alfred, Georgia, Sixo, Schoolteacher, Halle, his brothers, Sethe, Mister, the taste of iron, the sight of butter, the smell of hickory, notebook paper, one by one, into the tobacco tin lodged in his chest. By the time he got to 124 nothing in this world could pry it open.” (Morrison, 121) 

Paul D is so diffident in his own mind that he becomes so astonished to hear a rooster named Mister. He is left baffled because he could never imagine being called mister himself. This instance becomes a depiction of how a slave’s worth was considered beneath to even that of a rooster. “Paul D doesn’t tell Sethe anything more about the experience of having the bit. He keeps the rest of the story in “that tobacco tin buried in his chest where a red heart used to be.” He resolves to keep the pain of his past locked up there and not let Sethe know that he has lost his heart.” (Morrison, 80) 

Kate Chopin’s “The Awakening” 

First published in the year 1899, The Awakening centers around Edna Pontellier and explores her struggles as well as her desires in an orthodox society. Through Edna, Chopin pivots towards all the women who want to be more than just a wife or a mother. She puts profound emphasis on how women can want more in life and more from life than to be just what their domestic functions define them. 

Considering the era during which it was written, this text was initially praised but no later it became highly controversial due to its radical ideas and beliefs. “Chopin anticipated a warm reception for her novel. A month before its release, Book News had run a positive review praising the novel as “subtle and a brilliant kind of art.” To say that the novel was not received well is an understatement.” (Bracken, 2024) “Critics all over the United States condemned the novel as “morbid,” “unhealthy,” “not wholesome,” “vulgar,” “repellent,” and even “poison.” Edna’s character was described as “sensual and devilish” and “not good enough for heaven, [but] not wicked enough for hell.” (Bracken, 2024) The novella was largely forgotten until the mid-20th century when it was rediscovered and recognized as a significant work of feminist literature due to its exploration of female sexuality and its questioning of traditional gender roles. 

 A Journey of Awakening: Reimagining the American Dream

 The story is set in the late 19th century, during a period of significant social change and the emergence of the women's rights movement. During that period of time, the American dream was associated with individualism, personal fulfillment, and the pursuit of happiness, but what it did not disclose directly was that all of this was to be done within the constraints of societal norms and expectations. Even though the concept had to offer so much, it becomes clear to one that women were always shunned away from growth and prosperity. They were only bound by and defined by their domestic life and were expected as much; nothing more, nothing less. If a woman was to cross these social boundaries, they were either faced with isolation, madness or worse, death. Just like Sethe, Edna too rejects the materialistic pleasures around her and actively seeks deeper spiritual and emotional fulfilment. Her dissatisfaction with the superficiality of her upper-class lifestyle reflects a critique of the materialistic aspects of the American Dream, suggesting that true fulfillment lies beyond material wealth and social standing. 

The novella showcases the audiences the difference between an ‘ideal’ woman and a ‘flawed’ woman. It shows how there are only a certain type of women which are accepted in society, e.g., Madame Ratignolle, and the ones who do not conform to societal expectations and speak out about what troubles them, succumb to isolation and madness, e.g., Madame Reisz and Edna. “I would suggest that what Edna achieves in The Awakening is not so much a rebellion but a prologue to rebellion. She achieves the necessary first step towards making herself into the kind of woman capable of rebelling.” (Urgo, 01) The awakening exposes the limitations of the promise of The American Dream about social mobility and equality, the belief that individuals can rise above their circumstances through hard work and determination. Women and the marginalized groups used to face discrimination of the utmost level and regardless of being born in the upper society, the women, like Edna, did not have any way to earn their own money. The only way for women to have any sort of upward social mobility was through marriage which made marriage their ultimate economic prospect.

 Despite her efforts to assert her independence and pursue her own desires, Edna faces social banishment and ultimately tragic consequences, highlighting the barriers to social mobility and equality in the patriarchal society of late 19th-century America. “Nineteenth-century realistic literature, the so-called bourgeois novel, that not only showed a particular preference for the theme of adultery but also revealed a particular interest of the authors in female sexuality and female sexual transgression.” (Mikolchak, 30) 

Women in fiction and the American Dream 

Like the protagonists of the aforementioned texts, women in stories and also in real life were the beneficiaries and victims of the American Dream. Female characters in fiction often face unique challenges in their pursuit of the American Dream. Historical and societal constraints, such as sexism, racism, and class barriers, can hinder in their hope and progress towards a healthier future. Some works of fiction subvert traditional societal norms of the American Dream by portraying women who reject conservative paths of the social order, Edna Pontellier. 

Works like “Beloved”, "The Color Purple" by Alice Walker, etc., explores how race, class, and gender intersect to shape women's experiences of the American Dream. Almost all women-centric texts have notions of empowerment, agency and solidarity and because women are always subjugated, it becomes necessary for them to learn about their own freedom, their own voice through someone else’s writing. 

Conclusion

 Both the works of Morrison and Chopin offers a critical examination of the prospects of the American Dream and its limitations, particularly concerning women and marginalised groups. Through Sethe and Edna Pontellier, these works challenge the very concept of the American dream and its aspects about upward social mobility, equality and opportunities revealing its limitations and complexities as one reads on the texts. 

The one common aspect between the two novels is their portrayal of its women struggles against a system of oppression and ultimately succumbing one’s loss of peace and mind. these texts call into question the homogenized notion of success associated with the American Dream, urging for a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of prosperity and fulfillment in American society. 

Bibliography 

Bowers, Susan. "Beloved" and the New Apocalypse, Spring 1990. The Journal of Ethnic Studies; https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ411270

Bracken, Haley. "The Awakening". Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 Mar. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Awakening-novel-by-Chopin. Accessed 23 March 2024.

Hassler, Warren W. and Weber, Jennifer L.. "American Civil War". Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 Mar. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War. Accessed 23 March 2024.

Heffernan, Teresa. "BELOVED" AND THE PROBLEM OF MOURNING, Winter 1998, p. 558.

Lowne, Cathy. "Beloved". Encyclopedia Britannica, 19 Jan. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/topic/Beloved-novel-by-Morrison. Accessed 23 March 2024.

Mikolchak, Maria. Kate Chopin's "The Awakening" as Part of the Nineteenth-Century American Literary Tradition, Spring 2004, p. 29. Interdisciplinary Literary Studies; https://www.jstor.org/stable/41207027?oauth_data=eyJlbWFpbCI6InNiaHV2aTQ5QGdtYWlsLmN vbSIsImluc3RpdHV0aW9uSWRzIjpbXSwicHJvdmlkZXIiOiJnb29nbGUifQ 

Urgo, Joseph R. A Prologue to Rebellion: "The Awakening" and the Habit of Self-Expression, Fall 1987, p. 22. The Southern Literary Journal; https://www.jstor.org/stable/20077844

Weber, Jennifer L. and Hassler, Warren W.. "American Civil War". Encyclopedia Britannica, 22 Mar. 2024, https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War. Accessed 23 March 2024.

Wolak, Jennifer, and Peterson, David A. M. The Dynamic American Dream, October 2020, p. 968. American Journal of Political Science; https://www.jstor.org/stable/45295360 

ISLAND by Nissim Ezekiel.

Written in the post war era, the poem island showcases the grim reality of the a city which emerged as the most developed urban city of India, Bombay, now known as Mumbai.

The poem commences with the poet talking about an island and describing it as a place which is unsuitable to be written about and unsuitable to be thought about. This is because the island provides a glaring contrast between the poor and rich in the form of skyscr and slums which imparts a sense of reality to the poem. This island is shown to be part of the poer’s consciousness and how just like the place, the poet’s mind is also filled with uneven growth or development. At this point it becomes quite clear that the poet is referring to the city of Bombay as the island, where he was born and raised. Through  Bombay the poet talks to his audience and lucidly makes his identification with the city clear. This is evident from reading the first five lines of the poem.

The poet also confesses in the next few lines how despite his complete identification and assimilation with the city of Bombay, he feels utter loneliness and isolation and in that same wilderness of isolation he cries for help but nobody helps him, leading him to remain quiet and accept his own counsel or company. In his loneliness, he thinks that people have become heartless during their run towards a mirage of development after the war. The word dragon is used to symbolise these inhuman qualities that has possessed the people of Bombay, making them lack human sensibility. 

Even though the harshness of the city takes a toll on its residents, there is just something about it which keep its people glued to the place. The poet proposes that maybe it is the “Bright and tempting breezes” which “Flow across the island”. This attractive feature may refer to the business and commercial prospects offered by the city. 

In the next few lines we see that when the poet tries to forget or ignore the condition of the city, he gets a feeling of salvation. This is because for once he is able to look over the dissatisfaction and sorrow the city puts forth and focus on the sense of belongingness the he feels towards the city. He is relieved from a growing frustration for a while. 

This feeling is quite common in the hearts of many people residing in developing or underdeveloped countries. There is always a feeling of starting a new life in far away places, to get out of their birth place. Many Indians want to go to places in the European, North American or Australian continents but at the end of the day they also cannot deny their attachment and the feeling of belongingness they have towards their own country. The same expression is portrayed by the poet for Bombay. In spite of the evils present, he keeps himself engaged in the affairs of life & the ways of the city. Just like a true native the poet accepts the disturbances, dissatisfaction and “takes calm and clamour in his stride.”