Abstract
This paper attempts to study the gender roles and identity of Aphra Behn’s play, “The Rover”. The paper begins by providing a historical background of the Restoration period, highlighting the shift from Puritanical rule to a more pleasure-seeking culture, under King Charles II and also the rise of the middle classes providing new opportunities for people like Aphra Behn to pursue their goals. Then this paper delves into the portrayal of gender and sexuality in the play. The study also explores the expression of feminine rage in characters like Angellica, Florinda and Hellena. The paper also highlights how the play addresses the objectification and exploitation of women in quite detail. Finally. The paper concludes by emphasizing the significance of "The Rover" as a work of Restoration drama that challenges social norms and offers insights into the complexities of human desires, societal expectations, and struggles for personal freedom and agency.
Introduction
Aphra Behn was an influential English writer of the 17th century, known for her plays, poetry, and fiction. Her play “The Rover” was first performed in 1677, during a period in English history known as the Restoration. In this period, there were significant changes in socio-economic and political composition of England. The era witnessed Restoration of the Monarchy, Exclusion Crisis1 and the Glorious Revolution2 . To understand the socioeconomic and political background of the play, it is important to consider the context of the time.
Restoration period
This period began in 1660 when King Charles II was restored to the throne after the English Civil War, the subsequent era under Oliver Cromwell and the Interregnum3 . This marked a significant shift in political and social dynamics, as England moved away from Puritanical rule and embraced a more ‘pleasure- seeking’ culture. The Restoration brought about a sense of optimism and a desire for contentment and entertainment, which influenced Behn's works.
Political and Social Climate
With the re-establishment of the monarchy and the return of royal absolutism, Charles II sought to consolidate his power and establish stability after the upheavals of the Civil War. The period was marked by copious political corruption and a growing divide between the monarchy and the parliament. The seventeenth century also witnessed the rise of the middle classes, with merchants and tradesmen becoming increasingly influential. There was an emerging capitalist economy, trade and commerce. The expansion of overseas colonies and trade routes led to the accumulation of wealth among merchants and traders, creating a new class of wealthy individuals outside of the traditional aristocracy. This social shift created new opportunities for individuals like Aphra Behn, who came from a modest background, to engage in literature and pursue artistic goals.
Gender and Sexuality
Behn’s play challenges traditional gender norms and explores themes of sexual liberation. The portrayal of the female characters in “The Rover” reflects the changing roles and expectations for women during this period. This period is marked as the time when women actresses started performing on stage and increasingly asserting their independence by challenging societal norms. Laura J. Rosenthal in her essay on Behn’s Rover states, “Whatever intimates knew at the time twentieth-century scholars disagree about the sexual activity of Restoration women actors. For Allardyce Nicoll, women actors differed little from anyone else in the court of Charles II: "All sort of moralities, all sense of decency had gone. Women had become as libidinous as the men.” (Rosenthal 1993, 03) In the play, women are expected to be chaste, obedient and submissive to men. The play features both passive and assertive female characters, reflecting the diversity of women’s experiences during that era. Nancy Copeland states, “Like other "gay" heroines, Hellena acknowledges and acts on her desire, and risqué, potentially libertine sentiments form an important part of her discourse.” (Copeland 1992, 21)
Liberation of Hellena and Florinda
One of the central female characters in they play is Florinda, who challenges societal norms and expectations by defying her brother, Don Pedro’s, authority and pursuing a relationship with Belvile, the man she loves. Florida’s rebellion against her brother’s control and her insistence on choosing her own partner is a demonstration of her agency and her desire for independence. She is a complex and spirited young woman who displays resilience, wit and passion throughout the play. She is an independent- minded woman who likes to follow her own desires and does not pay much regard to societal expectations.
For instance, her disguises herself as a gypsy, Callis, to pursue Belvile against her brother’s wishes. “Florinda seeks to define her independence in the very patriarchal terms that invalidate it: "I shall let him see, I understand better what's to my beauty, birth and fortune, and more to my soul, than to obey those unjust commands.” (Pacheco 1998, 324).
Similarly, her sister, Hellena is not much different. Hellena also refuses to conform to the restrictions imposed on women in her time. She too embraces her freedom and openly expresses her desires. Like Florinda, she disguises herself as a gypsy as well to freely roam the streets of Naples, indulging in the excitement and adventure that her status as a noblewoman would otherwise deny her. She does not lack wit and intelligence either. In Act 2, Scene 1, Hellena engages in a playful verbal exchange with Willmore, displaying her intelligence and wit. “The women in The Rover use the carnival in Venice as an opportunity to win their heart's desire.” (Gardner, 2009)
Hellena is driven by her desires and is unafraid to pursue her romantic interests. She falls in love with Willmore, a charming but unreliable rover, and starts on a passionate and tumultuous relationship with him. Despite societal disapproval, she refuses to deny her feelings.
Behn in her play showcases that both of these female characters are romantic and idealistic. “The male subject position, Hellena seeks to compete with Willmore on equal terms, rejecting the sexual double standard that in this dramatic world is clearly enforced through rape.” (Pacheco 1998, 342). Florinda is deeply in love with Belvile and remains loyal to him throughout the play. She believes in the power of true love and longs for a passionate and genuine relationship. Her romantic nature is evident in her poetic and heartfelt declarations of love, such as when she says, "Love in my heart is all my happiness." Hellena, on the other hand, boldly confronts societal expectations and fights for her own agency. In Act 5, Scene 2, Hellena stands up to her brother, Don Pedro, and refuses to comply with his attempts to control her romantic choices.
Feminine Rage
Its changing expression between Angellica, Florinda and Hellena.
Rage, in the Rover, is depicted through various characters and their actions. While the play doesn't explicitly focus on feminine rage4 , there are instances where female characters express their anger and frustration. Hellena and Florinda both openly show her anger and rage towards societal expectations on women and constraints placed on them. Their defiance and determination can be seen as a form of feminine rage, as they challenge the patriarchal norms of their time. Florinda's rage specifically manifests through her resistance to her father's plan to force her into a marriage with the unscrupulous Willmore, and her determination to be with the man she loves. Likewise, Hellena also resents being forced into a marriage against her will and seeks freedom to pursue her desires.
But more than any of them, it is the character of Angellica Bianca whose portrayal of rage is the most prominent. Angellica, a courtesan, exhibits a certain level of anger and resentment towards the men who exploit her for their own pleasure. This happened because she was having an affair with the charmingly irresponsible Willmore and fell in love with him. Much to her dismay, Willmore falls in love with Hellena. Due to this she is extremely enraged and seeks revenge on Willmore. This is a very notable instance because unlike typical drama where a woman is showcased to be against the other woman in an affair and usually the man’s the one who initiates the affair, Angellica’s anger only being towards Willmore and not Hellena is quite ahead of its time, much like the entire play. Her character showcases the consequences of a society that objectifies women and the rage that can arise from such exploitation.
Both Florinda and Angellica are prominent female characters in the play, but they both display and express their anger in different ways based on the circumstances and experience.
Florinda's rage is often portrayed as a more internal and personal struggle. She rebels against her father's plans, disguises herself, and takes actions to assert her agency and pursue her desires. Florinda's rage is characterized by her defiance and determination to resist societal expectations. However, Angellica's rage is portrayed as more outward and confrontational. She openly challenges the men who exploit her, demanding respect and fair treatment. For example, Angellica challenges Willmore's double standards and highlights the power dynamics at play. She expresses her anger through her words and actions, confronting the double standards and hypocrisy of the male characters.
Florinda's rage is driven by her desire for love, freedom, and the right to choose her own path. Angellica's rage is more focused on seeking recognition and reclaiming her agency within her profession. “The English gallants' shifting assessments of Angellica-the "adored beauty of all the youth in Naples" who is also a "commodity," "the inn where a man may lodge" -make plain that this woman who aspires to be the subject of desire simultaneously reduces herself to the level of an object.” (Pacheco 1998, 336)
Florinda and the Abused woman
Two female characters who experience abuse and mistreatment Florinda and the abused woman (also known as the "disguised nun" or "Lucetta"). Florinda experiences a traumatic and disturbing near-rape incident. The scene involves Blunt, a lively and lustful character, who mistakes Florinda for a prostitute due to her disguise as a gypsy and attempts to force himself upon her. Blunt aggressively pursues her and attempts to sexually assault her. Florinda resists his advances and fiercely fights back against his unwelcome advances. This near-rape scene is a distressing portrayal of the vulnerability and danger women faced in the context of the play's setting. It exposes the predatory behaviour of certain male characters and highlights the threats and violence women encountered when their identities were misunderstood or disregarded.
The abused woman, Lucetta, is a minor character in the play who dresses as a nun to hide from her abusive lover, Blunt. She is portrayed as a victim of physical and emotional abuse. She is shown to face frequent internal struggles and fear, but does not involve herself in active resistance. She disguises herself as a nun to escape the cycle of abuse which she’s seemed to be trapped in. While she doesn't directly confront her abuser, her situation sheds light on the plight of women who suffer silently under the power dynamics imposed by society.
The contrasting portrayals of Florinda and Lucetta highlights the different responses to abuse and mistreatment exhibited on women. Florinda's rage pushes her towards action and defiance, while the abused woman's rage is more hidden and focused on self-protection. Both characters, however, provide perception into the challenges faced by women in a society that reduces their agency and subjects them to abuse.
Conclusion
Aphra Behn's play "The Rover" offers a rich exploration of themes such as love, desire, gender dynamics, societal expectations, and the struggle for personal agency. Through a diverse cast of characters and their complex relationships, Behn challenges traditional norms and offers a detailed viewpoint of the complexities of human emotions and interactions.
It highlights the constraints put on women and the limited freedom they possess in society. How they do not have much say in any decisions even if those decisions can effectively change the discourse of their life (like getting married). The play showcases the heavy objectivity of women regardless of what they are wearing. Female characters like Hellena, Florinda, and Angellica assert their desires and challenge patriarchal expectations, showcasing the strength and resilience of women during hardships.
Furthermore, the play delves into the nature of love and desire, revealing the complexities in human relationships. It examines the tension between passion and societal norms. The play presents characters who defy presenting characters who defy convention in pursuit of their own happiness.
It is worth noting that the play addresses serious themes related to consent, gender dynamics, and power imbalances. While the near-rape scene is disturbing, it serves as an important critical aspect on the treatment of women and the need for social change.
Overall, "The Rover" stands as an important work of Restoration drama, challenging social norms, and offering a glimpse into the complexities of human desires, societal expectations, and the struggles for personal freedom and agency. Behn's play continues to captivate audiences and scholars alike, sparking discussions on gender, power, and the enduring relevance of its themes in contemporary society.
Bibliography
Copeland, Nancy. “Once a whore and ever”? Whore and virgin in the Rover and its Antecedents.” Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700, Spring 1992, Vol 16, No. 1 (Spring 1992). https://www.jstor.org/stable/43292571
Encyclopedia.com, The Rover. Elin Diamond, “Gestus and Signature in Aphra Behn’s The Rover,” in ELH, Vol. 56, No. 3, 1989, pp. 519–41. https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/rover
Gardner, Lyn. Review on The Rover | Theatre, The Guardian (Summer 2009). https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2009/jul/09/the-rover-review
Piccirillo, C. the Use of Rape Narratives in the Plays of Aphra Behn (2017), City University of New York. https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1200&context=hc_sas_etds
Rosenthal, Laura. J. “Counterfeit Scrubbado”: Women Actors in the Restoration.” The Eighteenth Century, SPRING 1993, VOL 34, No. 1 (SPRING 1993), pp 3-22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41467546
See Diamond, 529-32; and Julie Nash, "'The Sight on't would Beget a Warm Desire': Visual Pleasure in Aphra Behn's The Rover," Restoration 18 (1994), 78-79, 81- 82
Stodard, NE. Aphra Behn on the Contemporary Stage (2017), University of South Florida. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=8643&context=etd
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